Thursday, 2 July 2015

what is difference between c and c++?

C++

c ++(pronounced as cee plus plus, /ˈsiː plʌs plʌs/) is a general-purpose programming language. It has imperative, object-orientedand generic programming features, while also providing facilities for low-level memory manipulation.

It is designed with a bias toward system programming and embedded, resource-constrained and large systems, with performance, efficiency and flexibility of use as its design highlights.^[3] C++ has also been found useful in many other contexts, with key strengths being software infrastructure and resource-constrained applications,^[3] including desktop applications, servers (e.g. e-commerce,web search or SQL servers), performance-critical applications (e.g. telephone switches or space probes), and entertainment software.^[4] C++ is a compiled language, with implementations of it available on many platforms and provided by various organizations, including the FSF, LLVM, Microsoft and Intel.
C++ is standardized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), with the latest (and current) standard version ratified and published by ISO in December 2014 as ISO/IEC 14882:2014 (informally known as C++14).^[5] The C++ programming language was initially standardized in 1998 as ISO/IEC 14882:1998, which was then amended by the C++03, ISO/IEC 14882:2003, standard. The current C++14 standard supersedes these and C++11, with new features and an enlarged standard library. Before the initial standardization in 1998, C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs since 1979, as an extension of the C language as he wanted an efficient and flexible language similar to C, which also provided high-level features for program organization.
Many other programming languages have been influenced by C++, including C#, Java, and newer versions of C (after 1998).

operator of c++

Increment and decrement operators are unary operators that add or subtract one from their operand, respectively. They are commonly implemented in imperative programming languages. C-like languages feature two versions (pre- and post-) of each operator with slightly different semantics.
In languages syntactically derived from B (including C and its various derivatives), the increment operator is written as `++` and the decrement operator is written as `--`.
The increment operator increases the value of its operand by 1. The operand must have an arithmetic or pointer data type, and must refer to a modifiable data object. Similarly, the decrement operator decreases the value of its modifiable arithmetic operand by 1. Pointers values are increased (or decreased) by an amount that makes them point to the next (or previous) element adjacent in memory.
In languages that support both versions of the operators, the pre-increment and pre-decrement operators increment (or decrement) their operand by 1, and the value of the expression is the resulting incremented (or decremented) value. In contrast, the post-increment and post-decrement operators increase (or decrease) the value of their operand by 1, but the value of the expression is the operand's original value prior to the increment (or decrement) operation. In languages where increment/decrement is not an expression (e.g. Go), only one version is needed (in the case of Go, post operators only).
Since the increment/decrement operator modifies its operand, use of such an operand more than once within the same expression can produce undefined results. For example, in expressions such as `x − ++x`, it may not be clear to a user in what sequence the subtraction and increment operations should be performed. Such expressions generally invoke undefined behavior, and should be avoided.onlinenotesforeng.blogspot.in

The natural logarithm of a number is its logarithm to the base e, where e is an irrational and transcendental constant approximately equal to 2.718281828459. The natural logarithm of x is generally written as ln x, log_e x, or sometimes, if the base e is implicit, simply log x.^[1] Parentheses are sometimes added for clarity, giving ln(x), log_e(x) or log(x). This is done in particular when the argument to the logarithm is not a single symbol, to prevent ambiguity.
The natural logarithm of x is the power to which e would have to be raised to equal x. For example, ln(7.5) is 2.0149..., because e^2.0149... = 7.5. The natural log of e itself, ln(e), is 1, because e¹ = e, while the natural logarithm of 1, ln(1), is 0, sincee⁰ = 1.
The natural logarithm can be defined for any positive real number a as the area under the curve y = 1/x from 1 to a (the area being taken as negative when a<1). The simplicity of this definition, which is matched in many other formulas involving the natural logarithm, leads to the term "natural". The definition of the natural logarithm can be extended to give logarithm values for negative numbers and for all non-zero complex numbers, although this leads to a multi-valued function: see Complex logarithm.
The natural logarithm function, if considered as a real-valued function of a real variable, is the inverse function of theexponential function, leading to the identities:

$e^{\ln(x)} = x \qquad \mbox{if }x > 0$
$\ln(e^x) = x.$

Like all logarithms, the natural logarithm maps multiplication into addition:

$\ln(xy) = \ln(x) + \ln(y).$

Thus, the logarithm function is an isomorphism from the group of positive real numbers under multiplication to the group of real numbers under addition, represented as afunction:
$\ln \colon \mathbb{R}^+ \to \mathbb{R}.$
Logarithms can be defined to any positive base other than 1, not only e. However, logarithms in other bases differ only by a constant multiplier from the natural logarithm, and are usually defined in terms of the latter. For instance, the binary logarithm is the natural logarithm divided by ln(2), the natural logarithm of 2. Logarithms are useful for solving equations in which the unknown appears as the exponent of some other quantity. For example, logarithms are used to solve for the half-life, decay constant, or unknown time inexponential decay problems. They are important in many branches of mathematics and the sciences and are used in finance to solve problems involving compound interest

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In mathematics, the logarithm of a number is the exponent to which another fixed value, the base, must be raised to produce that number. For example, the logarithm of $1000$ to base $10$ is $3$ , because $10$ to the power $3$ is $1000$ (as $1000 = 10 \times 10 \times 10 = 10 3$ ). More precisely, for any two positive real numbers $b$ and $x$ where $b$ is not equal to $1$ , the logarithm of $x$ to base $b$ , denoted $log b (x)$ , is the unique real number $y$ such that
$b y = x$ .

for example, as $64 = 4 3$ , we have $log 4 (64) = 3$ The logarithm to base $10$ (that is $b = 10$ ) is called the common logarithm and has many applications in science and engineering. The natural logarithm has the number $e$ ( $\approx 2.718$ ) as its base; its use is widespread in mathematics and physics, because of its simpler derivative. The binary logarithm uses base $2$ (that is $b = 2$ ) and is commonly used in computer science.
Logarithms were introduced by John Napier in the early 17th century as a means to simplify calculations. They were rapidly adopted by navigators, scientists, engineers, and others to perform computations more easily, using slide rules and logarithm tables. Tedious multi-digit multiplication steps can be replaced by table look-ups and simpler addition because of the fact — important in its own right — that the logarithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms of the factors:
$\log_b(xy) = \log_b (x) + \log_b (y), \,$
provided that $b$ , $x$ and $y$ are all positive and $b \neq 1$ . The present-day notion of logarithms comes from Leonhard Euler, who connected them to the exponential function in the 18th century.
Logarithmic scales reduce wide-ranging quantities to smaller scopes. For example, the decibel is a unit quantifying signal power log-ratios and amplitude log-ratios (of which sound pressure is a common example). In chemistry, pH is a logarithmic measure for the acidity of anaqueous solution. Logarithms are commonplace in scientific formulae, and in measurements of the complexity of algorithms and of geometric objects called fractals. They describe musical intervals, appear in formulas counting prime numbers, inform some models inpsychophysics, and can aid in forensic accounting.In the same way as the logarithm reverses exponentiation, the complex logarithm is the inverse function of the exponential function applied to complex numbers. The discrete logarithm is another variant; it has uses in public-key cryptography.

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Sunday, 21 June 2015

tips on improving your english

                                                               * TIPS ON Improving Your English
             *Contents:-

          1. How can I help my one-on-one conversation partners with their english?
           2.How can I have a great conversation in English?
           3.How can I improve my English?
           4.What online resources can help me with my English?

                                                                     *How to improve my conversation skills?

                 1.Don’t be shy and self-conscious!
                 2.Communication errors can be solved.
                3.A conversation is an interactive activity involving listening and speaking from both parties.
                4.It’s all about listening and asking question.
                5.Do some research!
                6.Lulls are normal.'
                7.If a conversation is going wrong, it may not be your fault.

                                                             *How to introduce myself?

                        1.Greet with smile
                       2.Maintain eye contact
                       3.Give a firm handshake
                       4.Tell your name
                       5.Ask for the other person’s name
                       6.Repeat the other person’s name
                        7.Never draw a negative picture of yourself

                                                             *How to have a great conversation?
                        1.Relax and forget about yourself
                       2.Listen
                      3.Ask questions
                      4.Use a friendly tone
                      5.Choose your words and questions carefully
                      6.Avoid controversial and intimate topics as well as arguments
                     7.Neither interrupt a person in the middle of his thought, nor speak on top of it
                     8.Compliment the other person
                     9.Thank for a great conversation

                                                   *How to handle a difficult question?
                        1. Personal, intimate question
                        I’m sorry, but I’d prefer not to answer this question.
                         2.Question you don’t know the answer
                         I have no idea.
                        3.Question you didn’t catch
                       Can you repeat the question?
                      4.Question you don’t understand because of unfamiliar words or question structure
                         I’m sorry, but I don’t understand your question. Would you mind telling it in different words?/What do you mean by…?/What does…mean?

                                                    *How to avoid awkward lulls?

                                          1.Move on to another topic
                                          2.Ask questions for clarity
                                         3.Find common interests
                                         4.Compliment the other person
                                         5.Observe any visual clues to draw a topic out
                                        6.If an awkward lull happens, correct it by saying the following: I am thinking of what we have just talked about. And paraphrase what you have been talking about.

                                                *How can I improve my English?
                                   1.Be active and set goals for improving your English!
                                    2.A language is not only speaking, but a combination of speaking, listening, reading and writing, including grammar.
                                 3.Use different learning styles such as visual, auditory to achieve your objectives.

                                              *Resources:-
                    1.Learn English Free Online:
                       http://www.learnenglish.de

                    2.Learn American English Online:
                       www.learnamericanenglishonline.com
                 3.Learn Languages for Free Online:
                     http://www.busuu.com
                     4.English Club:
                         http://www.busuu.com

                                        *How to improve speaking?
                         1.Listening and reading aloud
                         2.Writing
                         3.Networking and making friends

                         4.Greeting people on the street
                         5.Having small talks in public
                        6.Watching foreign movies with English subtitles
                         7.Joining one-on-one conversations, conversation and common interest groups.

                                                      *Resources:-

                                            1.Daily Conversations:
                                                 http://www.worldenglishclub.com/daily-english-conversations
                                            2.EBooks:
                                                 http://www.gutenberg.org
                                        3.Phrases and Expressions for Speaking:
                                             http://www.eslgold.com/speaking/phrases.html

                                                *How to improve listening?

                      1.Speaking to English speakers
                      2.Watching TV and movies
                      3.Listening to radio
                      4.Reading audio books
                      5.Singing English songs
                      6.Practicing pronunciation
                       7.Joining conversation groups/one-on-one conversations

                                                     *Resources:-
                                            1.Listening Lab:
                                                http://www.esl-lab.com
                                             2.Listening Activities:
                                               http://www.manythings.org/e/listening.html
                                              3.Audio Books:
                                                   http://librivox.org
                                                   http://www.audiobooks.org
                                                    http://www.audiobooks.net

                                                             *How to improve comprehension?

                               1.Reading picture books or comics
                                2.Reading newspapers and magazines
                                   3.Asking questions during conversations
                                  4.Watching TV and movies
                                 5.Browsing English websites

                                6.Consulting dictionaries
                                 7.Constantly learning new words

                                  8.Clarifying meaning of slang and idioms
                                 9.Knowing grammar

                                                         *Resources:-
                                      1.Idioms:
                                        http://www.idiomconnection.com
                                      2.Reading Comprehension Exercises:
                                         http://www.englishcorner.vacau.com/reading/reading.html
                                       3.Listening Comprehension Exercises:
                                         http://www.learnenglishfeelgood.com/eslvideo/
                                       4.Vocabulary Games:
                                         http://www.vocabulary.co.il

                                                                *How to improve pronunciation?
                                        1.Listening to native English and imitating.
                                       2.Reading along with audio books.

                                       3.Speaking, being corrected or asking for correct pronunciation and repeating after.
                                        4.Paying attention to letter combination sounds, stressed syllables, word linkage and intonation.
                                       5.Training speech organs position, shape and movement of English sounds.

                                                *Resources:-
                                          1. Accent School:
                                              http://www.accentschool.com/run_software.html
                                         2.Some Pronunciation Rules:
                                            http://www.englishclub.com/pronunciation/index.htm
                                            http://www.fonetiks.org
                                       3.Pronunciation Exercises:
                                          http://www.pronunciationworkshop.com/pronunciationexercises.htm
                                          http://www.englishmedialab.com/pronunciation.html
                                          http://www.learnersdictionary.com/pronex/pronex.htm
                                          http://www.manythings.org/pp/

                                       4.Dictionaries with Pronunciation:
                                           http://www.merriam-webster.com
                                           http://www.howjsay.com
                                           http://www.thefreedictionary.com
                                           http://dictionary.cambridge.org

                                           *How to improve grammar?

                           1.Reading, listening, writing and speaking
                           2.Using subject-verb structure
                           3.Differentiating questions from statements
                           4.Understanding parts of speech
                          5.Practicing verb tenses
                          6.Knowing words beyond their meaning
                         7.Learning phrasal verbs
                          8.Doing grammar exercises.
                          9.Quizzing yourself

                                                 *Resources:-

                          1.English Grammar Exercises and Tests:
                                 http://world-english.org
                         2.English Grammar:
                                http://www.manythings.org/e/grammar.html
                       3.English Grammar Quizzes:
                               http://www.usingenglish.com/quizzes/
                               http://a4esl.org/a/v.html
                       4.English Study Zone:
                          http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/courses/elc/studyzone/
                      5.English Grammar Rules and Exercises:
                         http://www.musicalenglishlessons.org/index-ex.html
                       6.Phrasal Verbs:
                             http://www.englishpage.com/prepositions/verb_preposition.html
                             http://www.learn-english-today.com/phrasal-verbs/phrasal-verb-list.html
                             http://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/phrasal-verbs-list.html
                             http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/phrasals.html

                                                 *How to improve reading?

                             1.Reading audio books.
                             2.Watching movies with subtitles.
                             3.Listening to songs and following their lyrics.
                             4.Learning letter/letter combination sounds.
                             5.Stressing words correctly.
                             6.Paying attention to punctuation signs.
                             7.Slowing down and pronouncing every single word as well as word endings.

                                                                *Resources:-

                                              1.Listen and Read Along:
                                                   http://www.manythings.org/listen
                                              2.Phonics Games:
                                                      http://www.vocabulary.co.il/phonics
                                                      http://www.familylearning.org.uk/phonics_games.html

                                             3.Songs and Lyrics:
                                                        http://www.isabelperez.com/songs.html
                                                        http://www.songsforteaching.com/esleflesol.html

                                                                *How to improve writing?

                                              1.Reading, listening and speaking.
                                              2.Learning English grammar and vocabulary.
                                              3.Understanding the basic subject-verb sentence structure
                                              4.Using correct spelling
                                              5.Analyzing frequently misspelled words
                                              6.Making use of grammar and spell check
                                              7.Punctuating correctly
                                               8.Blogging, text messaging or having pen friends.

                                                         *Resources:-

                                                1.Blogging Sites:
                                                       www.blogger.com
                                                       www.blogtopsites.com
                                                 2.ESL Blogging:
                                                       http://www.eslgo.com/conversation/
                                                 3.Spelling Games:
                                                       http://www.vocabulary.co.il/spelling
                                                 4.Punctuation Rules:
                                                            http://www.englishclub.com/writing/punctuation.htm
                                                            http://www.angelfire.com/blues/writing/punctuation.html
                                                            http://www.wikihow.com/Use-English-Punctuation-Correctly
                                                            http://esl.about.com/od/englishgrammar/a/a_punctuation.htm
                                                            http://grammar.about.com/od/punctuationandmechanics/a/punctrules.htm





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